南极海域混合及上流在冰河及间冰河时期有关大气中二氧化碳变化中起到作用

来源:三支一扶 发布时间:2020-09-23 点击:

  南极海域混合及上升流在冰河及间冰河时期对于大气中二氧化碳变化中起到的作用

 摘要

 在冰河时期南太平洋空气流动的减少是二氧化碳大气中的含量在冰河时期比较少的原因。现在,南极的深海(2000米以下的海域)的水流则以很快的速度流上海洋表面,深海的水流与海底地形互相作用形成了这一个局面。从一个数据表中显示在所有的南极深海海域中水流的混合速率都是很高的。在海洋表面至2000米之间,水由海底残余的涌升流带动,直接带动海水浮至水面。由于深层海水的快速搅拌,表层海水又在很短的时间内被海流带至深海。

 我们提出两种新的机制,在冰川时期,南极深海可能更多的是与表层海水隔绝的。首先,深海海水似乎被分成了更多层因为南极海冰的形成导致了底部海水更致密。由于分层更多,导致了海水的混合减少。其次,考虑到当时大气的温度可能意味着当时从海面到海底海水的浮力与今天正好相反。这样的话就会减少或者消除海洋的上升流。我们可以观察到南极的温度和大气中二氧化碳的含量的关系可以由南极海域的浮力通量和上升流的关系决定,如果海流较慢则导致二氧化碳含量较低。在这里我们用一个和以前研究者相似的数据模型来揭示,如果深海海水混合较弱将导致上升流减弱从而引发在冰河时期大气中的二氧化碳含量较少的原因。

 1.简介

 深海海流速度的变化导致大气中二氧化碳的变化是在1984年首次提出的,当时的几篇学术论文指出,可能高纬度地区的深海控制着大气中的二氧化碳的浓度。这些论文上的数据模型是主要依赖于在一个稳定的生物活性和海洋洋流而产生的大气二氧化碳平衡上的。今天,在南极海域表层水中含有丰富的硝酸盐和磷酸盐,相对的,更高的二氧化碳浓度也使得这些营养被更充分得利用。大部分的深海海水随着涌升流流动的时候会带动二氧化碳和养分一起到海洋的表面。在这种模型中,无论是增加生物生产力或者是减少深海与表层水的交换都会导致大气中二氧化碳的降低。

 这些论文最初被解释为把增加的生物输出作为冰河时期特殊的二氧化碳环境的一种解释。但是新的证据都表明这一观点不可靠。这个观点有很多疑点,因为很多地域并不是都发生一样的状况,不过最近有一个新的观点就是:在冰河时期,亚南极地区尤其是靠近大西洋的部分,生物生产率上升明显,但在目前的极地地区生物生产率则下降。

 另一种可能的解释就是,在冰河时期,深海海流的速度比较低。最近Toggweiler认为这种情况是造成当时大气中二氧化碳含量较低的一种重要机制。大量实质性的证据表明,冰河时期二氧化碳问题能以这些证据来解释,而且在任何一种解释中深海和大气机制的隔离都是合理的。从琐碎的数据了解什么导致了这样的循环变化并不是微不足道的。因此,这篇论文就是从观察现在海洋中得到的数据从而来证实这个理论。随后我们提出为何在冰河时期洋流与今日不同。我们用数据模型表明我们提出的机制结合其他现象,可以改变二氧化碳在大气中的浓度。我们不是第一个提出改变海洋洋流机制的人,因此最后我们将其他近日提出的机制进行测试,来分辨互相冲突的理论。

 虽然研究了超过二十年,我们对冰河时期二氧化碳的变化的原因任然不是很确定,因为我们对于整个地球系统的过程依然很无知。虽然和其他的论文有很多细节上的区别但和其他论文在关键的理论上还是大体相似的。似乎有的论文指出二氧化碳浓度降低很大程度上依靠的是深海与大气的隔绝,要达到以上的情况必须要做到:提高海冰的覆盖,或者增加海洋表层的涌升流。这样使生物固定的碳远离大气层,降低大气中的二氧化碳。碳浓度增高可能会导致增加海洋的碱度,深海海水变得更加具有腐蚀性,对深海的碳酸岩沉积物进行腐蚀导致二氧化碳增加,这样海洋的酸碱性又恢复了平衡。这两种增加大气中二氧化碳浓度的方法都不需要增加生物生产力。

 2.全球海洋循环

 图一显示了一个全球性的海洋循环,南北的循环都比较平均。最深,密度最大的水形成于靠近南极大陆的地方,当海冰形成依附于大陆架上时含盐的冷水就形成了。这些将在向下斜坡重力流深海和对流毗邻大陆转移。这样,他们与温暖的极地深水组合,以不同的南极地层水混合形成几种不同类型的程度和结果。正如下文将进行的进一步讨论,一部分密度大的水从底部穿过南极大洋,一小部分返回水面。而另一部分则进入大西洋,由于太平洋和印度洋有碰地,导致了底部水域的出现。北大西洋深水层密度较小,是由北大西洋北部海域对流下沉,渗透南下而形成的。南极中层水,是由南极的地表水和海水融化形成的,南极的中层水向北渗透,形成了世界上许多海洋温跃层的水域。

 现在有两种对立的机制。比较经典的是这种稳定的循环是由垂直向下的平流和湍流扩散平衡互相制约形成的,垂直混合率由湍流扩散系数kz表示,这个在海洋科学中占有重要的位置。测试结果表明,温度低的温跃层和远离海洋内陆粗糙地形的kz比较低。但是,与洋流相互作用的湍流可以将这一现象延长好几公里。这些比较热的观点主宰着整个垂直混合流的深海学科中。

 另一种观点则是,它是由风的差异来驱动的,特别是在南太平洋中,其主要还是与西风有关。根据这种观点,表面的水速和深层的水速呈梯状关系,这又使得在其他地方的水有着补偿性下沉,也就是在北大西洋。风驱动是不依赖diapycnal混合的,且kz在海底内陆趋向于0。

 几乎可以肯定的是,真正的海洋洋流的状况肯定是由这两种模式所结合起来的。鉴于平流过程中风吹的作用,这样很可能会影响表面几公里海洋海水的垂直运输。一小部分北大西洋深水形成可能是由风驱动的,另一方面,在密度高的水域里,世界海洋的流动必须在很大程度上有diapycnally来驱动。但不知道有没有这样一种机制,使其返回到海水表面之后又由海气互相的作用使他们返回时减低深层海水的浓度。自从追踪南极这个水体的路径之后,它就变的清楚了,在深海中,由于远离水面,使得要进行大量的diapycnal转换。因此,如果最深的海水流动比冰河时期流动得更为缓慢,这可能至少有一部分是由于diapycnal改变的问题。这在理论上形成了一个挑战,为什么在冰河时期时深海混合会更弱?事实上,至少有一个证据证实潮汐是提供深海深层混合的主要能源。

 最近,芒克和文施指出,需要深海环流和风能共同作用才能产生用六。因此,从规模上来分析,其潜在的能量必须被添加到地层水中形成一个体积流量为Q的W?QΔρgh,其中Δρ是水与水之间的密度比,g为重力加速度,h是高度。如果能量是恒定的,那么在其他条件相同的情况下,Δρ肯定是负相关的,总的浮力通量不变,QΔρ不变,同样的,在稳态对流和扩散平衡的分析中,我们可以知道当该地区发生上升流的时候,垂直混合率和H升高。这表明,如果总能量确实是恒定的,则垂直混合率与密度差呈反比。在这里我们可以注意到,混合率下降则密度增加。假如当时冰川之间最深的水和表层水的密度之比比现在的更大,这就能够解释为什么那时的深海海流要更弱。

 我们知道为何要对冰河时期的深海分层,从2002年Adkins重新绘制的图中我们可以看到,温度和盐度在冰河时期的数值,与今日的条件相比,其中分层的差距是惊人的,盐度大的海水在那个时期是无处不在的,这是在冰川时期有盐度更大的海水的结果。然而,尽管现在海洋深海的温度差异主要是由于分层导致,而在冰河时期深海海洋的密度差异则取决于盐度。在气温接近于冰河时期的海洋形成冰冻,南极洲大洋的海水盐度更高,,这个盐度表明,如果对于冰河时期海洋平均含盐量的计算是正确的,那么大量的如今的中层和上层水一定处于更深的水域。

 现代南极海海水的混合和流动

 深层diapycnal混合

 近几年,又有关于diapycnal在南大洋混合率的新的信息,有好几次都是用跟踪版本直接测量的,在斯科舍海域,声学多普勒流速剖面仪的使用时效率普遍提高,其显示混合率在较大的深度中也普遍较高。这些数据有着相当广泛的价值,特别是在深海,更反映的地形对其的影响。然而,在上层水流的交叉处,密度跃层混合夏季更低(虽然有可能是暴风雨的影响),而在深层水域中则要高好几倍(可能是地形的影响),但是这些估算的不确定性还是比较大的。

 如图所示,二氧化碳浓度对于弄清楚南大洋内部海水流动能起到很大的作用。图3显示了大西洋和印度洋的氟氯化碳的平均浓度分布,超过南纬50°的地区其浓度分别沿不同的断面逐步深化,利用它与平均深度的关系,氟氯化碳很容易在整个水流中被发现。氟氯化碳在南极底层流(2000米以下的深度)混合程度非常大。如果我们假设底部的中层氟氯化碳是一个来分析垂直混合率的重要尺度。氟氯化碳在20年中大气浓度有增加很多。如表1所示,这是典型的10倍以下的平均数。

 但也有一种可能就是,并非所有的中层海水中的氟氯化碳浓度都是如此,一些有可能来自底部混合流。出于这个原因,上述的diapycnal混合可能产生于底部1000~2000米的海底。

 我们现在对南大洋深层水的混合做一个更详细的预估,利用这个事实,最密集的水域仅限于海底盆地处,且我们认为整个表面的等密度面都符合F公式。

 这里我们用z和w以及kz表示距离,流速和涡流扩散,这些其实在垂直涌升流中非常明显。我们估计在深海的恒定密度面中这些动量是此消彼长的。在等密度表面为界,其与海底崖口,形成了一个靠近底层的水域。

 在一个稳定状态,这个积分等于大规模注射底水的形成,Vσi,其中V是形成的σI容积率和密度,在形成的可能性率。等同的水的体积被注入,通过从表面上看,这是流动的,这里我们定义为潜在的在其表面密度梯度加权平均扩散率。对右侧积分可以使用气候水文数据。

  10-3平方米的S -1,增加值,远高于10-4低于?1000平方米的S -1米世界海洋的平均水平。由于南大洋包括约10%的全球海洋,计算表明,该地区仅是一个全球深层混合比例较高的地区。这种快速混合对新成立的南极底层流的影响是巨大的,底层水的密度较小。因此,在其形成的底层地区以外的过程中,南极底层流上涌为密度较轻的水。例如,根据海恩等人的测量的数据结果 (1998年),威德尔海南极底层流具有对只?40岁克罗泽-凯尔盖朗区域的过境时间,但这是因为它长时间温度从低于-0.4° C间上升至约0.5℃因此,南极底层流填补了世界上大多数海洋深渊密度小于水。

 这种状况显然是对这种快速混合流必须是在一定深度的地转边界流与海底地形相互作用的主要能量来源。因此,南大洋混合主要风吹而动荡diapycnal在深海盆地北部有可能进一步混合动力的潮流较大程度上与洋中脊混合的过程有关。模型研究表明,冰河时期的潮汐驱动深海中的海水混合可能比目前更强烈,可能提高全球diapycnal冰河时期混合率。尽管如此,在diapycnal在南大洋深海冰川混合削弱,导致了一定的混合削弱,其中在南大洋上涌的水密度较轻,返回到海洋上层时间延长。在海底,高密度的南大洋水就不得不流到在遥远的大洋盆地的混合中心,而不是被卡在南大洋。

 我们的结论是diapycnal混合底层水的流动而迅速达到了2000米的深度。在接近地表处,观察表明,diapycnal混合,就处于每平方米?10-5 s - 1的值。然而,在这个深度范围内有一个垂直循环,这样海洋表面的水完成了较快的向深海水域流通的时间。这就是我们现在对这个流动简要总结的想法。

 现代的南极海域翻转水流

 南极海洋中层深度水域由风驱动而流通起来反流中的涡流也受到其影响。在早期研究的基础上(Walin,1982;马歇尔,1997),卡斯滕和马歇尔(2002)最近分析了平均环流经向翻转的净时间和周围的路径平均的时间使想法和理论相结合。在这里,我们总结他们的结论,因为他们与我们的讨论有关。

 它可以方便地定义一个流动函数Ψres(Y,Z轴)的值意味着涌流,这样的话向北,向上的涌流平均速度都是通过这个表达的流动函数的一个组成部分,有助于在表达海水表面的速度向北,是由风带动的。这是直接关系到西风应力,平均时间和周围的ACC的路径。第二个组成部分,近海面的相反的方向;流动,涉及到海流,净涡斜压在ACC不稳定。

 Ψres是两个的总和。卡斯滕和马歇尔发现,下面的关系还必须应用在混合层深度函数Ψres:

 其中B代表浮力(参考密度ρ0为-gσ/ρ0),bm是混合层的浮力,浮力和B是进入或离开水面的。最后一个部分,-κz?早/?环Z(? =-公顷),是整个混合层底部浮力垂直通量。如果κz比较小,那么这个变量可以忽略不计。

 方程(2)表达的是海气热通量和淡水和翻转环流之间平衡。在左边是流函数倍的浮力在混合层经向梯度变化过程。Bm?/?y是变化比较大的,也就是说,作为一个北方海水表面比较轻。如果剩余流动做功也是正,那么水的密度必然下降。浮力,在这里是一个关键的变量。所需的浮力通量,在等式的右边给出,海气通量B.通过不同的极锋上涌流,但Karsten和马歇尔建议,埃克曼通量约21 SV和涡通量约为8 sv,留下一个净向北/ 13sv向上通量。

 如何在实践中,实现了等式的平衡。

 但是是否其余环流配合大气浮力通量调整,还是反之亦然?如今,海气热转移似乎主宰了海洋净浮力在ACC的增加,但所涉及的净热通量并不大。如果向北输送水增加,这将带来更多的冷水北移,导致自然是一个更大的海气热转移,并且倾向于恢复平衡。因此,今天,置于ACC净浮力通量可能影响海流,而不是相反。

 然而,当我们试图想象在冰河时期海洋的系统运作,这将产生一个疑问,浮力通量如果没有以这种方式增加一个更强大向北漂移会发生什么,可能是因为它是占主导地位情况下,如果由淡水通量增加,会增加风应力会导致更强的向北流动的海流,这将使地下水向南部增加和向南北倾斜。这增加斜压将导致更大的涡通量,将使埃克曼通量减小。如果海气通量的浮力不变。稳定的流量,往往也会保持不变,所以涡通量增加,直到埃克曼通量继续增加到平衡的时候。

 冰河时期的南极海翻转水流

 有证据表明,在最近一次的冰河时期中,海冰覆盖是现代冬季南极洲海洋面积的两倍,并且或多或少地延伸了海岸线。因此在冬季,海水表面趋于冻结,这意味着海洋浮力通量增加了。在夏季海洋冰面海岸线的位置更明确:Gersonde和Zielinksi争辩说,在最近一次的冰河时期的夏季冰面边缘附近是现代南极海冬季时期的海岸线,而Crosta等表明,它与现在夏季海洋结冰程度不同。

 现在,季节性海冰没有进入到的区域会发生海水混合(冬天海冰混合主要取决于接近60 ° N的地区,尽管它在大西洋延伸还进一步北移)。关于海冰的南翼永久开放的水域可以随时从大气中吸取热量以及从降水和冰川融化淡水吸热,向东流动和环能持续了一个比较大的剩余海流和相关的深层水涌。在冰河时期,海冰可能已经大致在同一纬度,其极地侧面有可能受季节性冰层覆盖,这意味着由于海气热交换导致浮力增加。虽然有可能是由于净增加浮力使冰融化在这一地区,这将高于在现代海冰的数值,主要是由于热驱动浮力增加较小。如果通过海冰的冰川表面浮力梯度相似,在现代的海洋,通过海气通量支持浮力上升流会相应地减少。比较大的上升流,现在在极锋以南是不会发生的。

 调用质量守恒定律,任何在ACC浮力由于净增益必须由冰融化造成的损失净浮力冰的形成。然而,浮力损失与海冰的形成有关,是唯一有效的出口从表面的地方出现在大陆架和可排入深海。这表明,在冰河时期时,有可能是一个底层水之间形成较强的上升流在ACC之间形成连接。现在浮力分层,主要是温度驱动而不是盐度驱动:在何种程度上深水是都是由海流驱动的。

 一个在南极海中平均上升流的变化将可能对全球翻转环流的影响。北极上升流在北大西洋形成是由于南极海的涌动,这是我们认为上述与上升流有着联系,并在一定程度上控制南极海净海气热通量和流水。对这种联系的某些后果已经探讨了,集中在南部的淡水在高纬度地区压迫作用,而且这是气候不稳定方面的'晴雨表'。在这里,我们无法对这个复杂的问题进行详细的探讨,但我们也注意到,在NADW冰川形成时间可能会减少在南极海域上涌流,两者可能有因果联系。

 对于末次冰河时期和现代海流的变化的摘要

 证据表明,在冰河时期,有一个较大的南极海冰覆盖范围,延伸到现在冬季南极海冰的位置,但在夏天融化。有证据表明底层水都含有相当多的盐。今天的深海分层更明显,由于温度和盐度不同,世界海洋底部的温度非常接近冰点。大概是非常寒冷的温度和含有盐碱水的底部形成了一个更为致密的盐水。分层越多,海水的流动速度更慢,导致在海水深水混合,减少上升流,使底部水与上层水的混合减少。寒冷的大气温度和季节性海冰覆盖面积减少,导致南极上升流减少,使深海水进一步孤立于表面的海水。在同一时间,热和卤水在NADW形成大幅减少。其结果是其中高盐度的水大多在最寒冷的水域。在这个海域,密度较高的底层水和盐水填补了主要海洋盆地。

 海气循环对于大气中二氧化碳变化的影响

 深海水域中无机碳的形成

 隔离在世界的海洋中的最深的水可能会改变一系列海气互换的原因是大气中二氧化碳浓度的沉降性。特别是,生物泵往往在深海碳元素被重新使用时,随着水返回到海面使大气中气体浓度趋于平衡。深海中增加对海水的滞留时间,因此,让更多的时间用于底层水生物的培养,从而去除海水表面和大气接触。此外,增加有机物质也可以使深海水的总碳含量降低,使其pH值升高,导致lysocline变得较小,使深海沉积物或颗粒掉落到海底的碳酸盐溶解更容易。这从而进一步降低了地表水的pCO2的碱度。由于在地下海洋的pH值阶层的变化,例如,在深海水流有所变化,这'碳酸盐补偿'可能还将持续下去,直到碱度对沉积物的产出率作为向海洋匹配的输入速率,并且可能被视为常数。这意味着lysocline将时间尺度上受沉积交互影响,返回到大致相同的深度,这是以前海水的情况,但是具有较高的平均碱度。有证据显示,末次冰河时期和现在该lysocline平均位置并没有太大变化,尽管它有所加深,在大西洋和太平洋中的一个比较小。我们知道,没有比为增加二氧化碳的海洋,大气中的冰期以来的时间(以及在陆地生物圈)其他来源。如果这种碳已经从海洋中删除没有任何碱度的变化,它会导致lysocline深化。事实上,今天lysocline似乎和最近一次冰河时期是一样的,因此,该时期的碳酸盐补偿机制已经基本完成。

 对于海气循环的建模

 在海洋大气中的碳建模机制,被用来解释冰期到间冰期大气CO2变化(Toggweiler,1999; Stephens和基林,2000)。三维海洋环流模式碳(OCGCMs)也被应用到这个问题,因为20世纪90年代后期(布勒克等,1999;。阿彻等人,2000年;。波普等,2003;。Toggweiler等人,2003年。

 )。人们已经发现那个模型在执行过程中通常显示相当高的灵敏度特别是高纬度过程中OCGCMs(布勒克等。,1999)。高纬度的机制提出了Toggweiler例如,(1999),华生等人。

 (2000年)和Stephens和基林(2000年)。对于这种不同的行为的原因由阿彻等人进行了调查。

 (2000年)和Toggweiler等。

 (2003年a,b)项。尚没有一个普遍的原因,但是。例如,阿彻等人。尝试了几种不同的OCGCMs,发现当模型被修改的水平旋转到与(雷迪,1982年)等密度面表面对齐时,混合张量会消除(但不是唯一的)的非物理diapycnal混合,这导致更多的源急性高纬度的灵敏度降低。然而,等密度模式,等密度面扩散应该没有什么区别,因为其显示了相对较弱的高纬度依赖性,所以这些作者无法明确OCGCMs和diapycnal扩散的情况。

 很显然,改变diapycnal模型中的混合可能会大大影响其大气中的二氧化碳浓度。这一点很重要,因为正如上文所述,diapycnal混合在实际海洋鲜为人知。现有OCGCMs几乎肯定不会重现,此外,数值扩散效应可能意味着真正的许多海洋碳模型diapycnal漏是很好的理解。如果diapycnal扩散是零,是固定的,一旦离开了水的表面的潜在密度变化很多,而等密度面扩散不能从定义。在这样的海洋,水必须再回到相同密度的表面,所以他们下沉了。由于大多数深海isopycnals露头在高纬度地区是唯一的。但是,下沉的diapycnal混合,水的存在由于密度和更高的表面温度使他们下沉,因此,逸气上升到达地面并排放二氧化碳。因此,增加模型中的diapycnal混合往往会提高大气中二氧化碳浓度,并使其更加难以分割二氧化碳在深海和水面的区别。这些因素表明,一个diapycnal减少应引起混合模型有更高的灵敏度。由于模型diapycnal混合率可以设定,而OCGCMs被降低,扩散效应可能会更有效,并通过数值差别的特点,那就是在这一方面海洋的运作的真正规律。

 Toggweiler等。在目前这一代的OCGCMs用于解决这个问题,通常是底层水的生产深对流参数化,在网格中尺度变化经常发生。在真实的南大洋,但是,底层水的形成是高密度的水和海冰的形成过程。对流是本地化,以更小的规模,只达到了大陆架的底部。

 Toggweiler等。'的工作表明,对于二氧化碳问题,超过在大陆架上与周围海水混合的过程中转移到深海形成的高密度海水是决定水源对大气二氧化碳浓度的关键。因为这样的过程不是在当前OCGCMs准确参数,并在盒子模型任意指定,也表示可以在物理上合理的。

 因此,尽管大气环流模式具有明显的优势,影响风力横向环流,它是由并不意味着一定是通过这种优势对大气二氧化碳循环或生物学变化的影响OCGCMs来模拟。下面我们描述了一个简单的数据模型来证明,至少在这方面,我们所描述的机制,对大气二氧化碳造成重大影响是正确的。我们用一个数据模型,因为它更透明和更容易理解为在比较容易获得OCGCM基础碳数据,但我们告诫,现有OCGCMs不会显示很多的南极海的运作过程。尽管如此,数据模型在高纬度地区依然成立。

 该模型和普通型相似,使用的Toggweiler(1999)表明,在深海中改变通气率确实会影响大气CO2和基林(2000)采用了类似的模型,探讨阻碍气体交换的作用的原因即致密冰盖覆盖在南极海域。该模型显示在图5a中- d,其中的流通和稳态现代冰川,与表2其他细节在一起呈现。该模型早期的一些变化,以让我们一直在讨论过程中特别关注。它由八个方块代表全球海洋的基础,主要水体类型。表面分为海洋极地南极,分南极,北大西洋北部,其余(即'温暖的海洋表面')。表层海分为AAIW,NADW和AABW。水库是一个单独的代表包括在南大洋深处最冷的AABW。

 图5a和5c显示'现代'和'冰河时期'环流为代表的模式。在现代情况下,大西洋经向翻转环流是由一个20sv形成NADW,其中5sv上涌到AAIW水域,其余则在南极海域上涌。南部20底层水的形成总sv,其中一半是通过迅速返回到上面讨论的混合过程表面,而其余的推移,形成了AABW中找到底部的主要海洋盆地。南大洋深层混合NADW,使南大洋底层水被加热前蔓延到世界其他地区的海洋。一共有13 AAIWsv形成于赤道侧翼,其中8 SV是从次南极表面,5个来自极地南大洋sv。

 海水混合的纵向关系代表交换通量。我们模仿的主要在海洋盆地。对水域的1000米深覆盖层包括温带和热带海洋10-4平方米的S - 1对应的10-4?1014 × 3 ×垂直扩散通量交换/一〇〇〇立方米的S - 1 = 30sv。40,30和20希沃特是典型的用于交换AABW - NADW,NADW - AAIW和AAIW表面的,对应于垂直混合,随着深度增加,混合增加。跃层为相对高值主要是为了反映不仅diapycnal流动(其中单独的?10-5平方米的S - 1给出扩散系数,建议值<5希沃特),也是由风温海流驱动和涡流的影响。

 在最近一次冰河时期的循环,NADW形成关闭,AABW和NADW水库相结合,提供一个单一的大AABW水库。假设增加密度对比的,以减缓这种水之间的交流和它上面的AAIW,并按照我们先前的讨论中,我们设置一个值,这个值的三分之一和现代海流相同。对于AABW上升流到南极海表面被关闭。形成AABW的总额略有下降,水温度降低到-1 ° C,反映了南极大洋形成了更加极端的条件。

 该模型由温度(T),磷(P),碱度(A)和总溶解无机碳(C),造型由固定菲尔德比率?(有机)指生物生产力和颗粒remineralisation:磷:?(无机)的106:1:25。颗粒通量在表面生成藏在底层箱remineralised(见表2)固定比例。大气二氧化碳是作为一个固定的值,pCO2则用于计算在整个海洋表面恒定气体传输速度。必要时,碳酸盐可粗略地通过恢复碳酸盐岩储层的AABW浓度值在现代海洋树脂中中加入或减去的总A和2的比例?存货,用于模拟未知的数值。

 表3收集了冰河时期到现代转型的几个条件和实验的结果。第1列给出了现代的数值。在第2栏中,我们看到了冰川水流,温度,存货和微粒表面的不同通量。在大气中二氧化碳是35 ppm的。如果碳酸盐补偿是包括在内,这将增加至57 ppm的。第3栏显示的出口均分别设置了南极和极地海洋生产力几乎为零的结果。在这种情况下,如果碳酸盐补偿是包括在内,大气中二氧化碳的跌幅仍低于现代价值约27 ppm。尽管生物停止活动,表面极性降低,营养盐浓度仍然在这种情况下,任然只有现在数值的一小部分。这是因为上涌流带来营养丰富的水,表面上看是减少了,其实相对没营养水转移到了北方。

 在第4栏中,生物生产力在次南极南大洋与现代的值是一致的,但次南极提高生产率降低。在南极地区的增加可以弥补以上在极地地区的大气pCO2的影响。第5列揭示了最近一次冰河时期的表面温度。最后,在第6栏,我们预计在冰期时两个进程中大气中二氧化碳将增加。这些都是因海洋冰建立土地上,这引起的碳,磷浓度和碱度数量减少,以及从末次盛冰期至今从海洋到陆地生物圈的土地作为生物量增长转移的碳的总量。最后大气中的浓度低于70个案件只有现代数值在碳酸盐补偿后的百万分之一。

 结论

 据这里的想法发展,现代深海迅速在的深层上涌。在,因为混合了深层水和在表面浮力通量下降抑制。这些变化有助于隔离,使得从大气中和水中生物固碳建立起来,导致大气中二氧化碳减少。特别是,一个浮力通量和上涌之间的可能是大气中二氧化碳为什么如此紧密联系在一起,如从南极冰芯。

 。如果发生,一直较低的温度导致深层形成更极端的属性。它也有助于降低大气二氧化碳,那么就形成了一个自我强化机制的一部分,由此造成的较低温度下进一步混合,导致二氧化碳。同一种正反馈也将适用于浮力还原机理。

 最近来解释的二氧化碳在接近对南极上升似乎,我们通过总结这些结束。

 ?1

 Stephens和基林(2000)注重'封顶'的南极海冰将会减慢其对气体交换的影响。由于气体交换不通是海洋与大气因素,这种假设需要在气体交换急剧减少,这意味着该冰覆盖范围应为一年中持续> 90%。此外,它在同一时间减退大气二氧化碳增加。如果没有海冰在夏季广泛,这将是一个致命的。也有人建议,在冬季二氧化碳上升提前冰层退去1-2 kyr(示麦等。,2002)

 ?2

 Jr的Toggweiler在最近提出的是风带的北移,从而减少在南大洋风应力,从而减少。这种机制在许多方面的效果类似于热通量变化。

 Toggweiler假定它主要是由风应力,虽然我们相信在情将被海气浮力.在风应力与今日相比的大小任然没有确定。。但是,对于风带在最后终止南移的证据来自智利湖区。只有当它在同一时间发生的这种转变可能是二氧化碳上升的主要原因,或多达几百年前?3

 西格曼和Boyle(2000年)的假设,即增加了近地面层积南大洋的CO2变化的主要动力,主要基于15N的数据,显示养分利用率(虽然罗宾逊等人新测量这些数据让人怀疑2004)。从海洋动力学的角度来看,这个想法还没有得到充分的发展。观测(表1)表明,diapycnal混合率已经缓慢今天在这种情况下,清楚为什么越来越近。正如基林和Visbeck,它是风能和涡流驱动带深层水涌到表面,如果任何被分层提高这会增加,因为较低的斜压性,会导致较弱的涡通量,因此,较强的平均环流。

 尽管我们现在仍然从对大气CO2浓度增加的原因,这些理论之间的程度是令人鼓舞的。此外,目前正在讨论的假设是大部分不是相互排斥的。他们可能。

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 guarantee for the great struggle. This aspects XI General Secretary of speech main including exercise thrift, against extravagance mass line is party of lifeline and fundamental work route accurate grasp party of mass line education practice activities of guideline and target requirements set and develop "three strict three real" of style put power shut into system of cage in using history wisdom advance anti-corruption construction in-depth advance style clean government and anti-corruption struggle develop nail nail of spirit, a Zhang good of blueprint worked to... 9. other aspects. 18 big yilai, XI General Secretary also respectively on diplomatic, and military, and ecological construction, aspects published has important speech, covers has construction ecological civilization, and advance defense and army modern, and rich "one country, two systems" practice and advance country unified, and go peace development road, and promoted building new powers relationship, and go good around diplomatic work, and strengthening and developing countries solidarity cooperation, and active participation multilateral affairs, and science of thinking and work method, many aspects. XI Jinping, Secretary of a series of important speeches, and further enrich and develop the party's theory, line, principles and policies, the party puts forward new requirements for more contemporary features, the latest achievement of Marxism in China, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics. Four methods. To address the relationship between comprehensive and focused on science. In the process of learning, we should follow as a good study and carry out the "wise men" to conduct a comprehensive collaborative learning; and with their own jobs, focus research and understanding spirit, grasp the potential requirements. For example, every party member should be according to the various branches of learning program, an article does not go into a link, no leakage of conducting a comprehensive study, and combined with their own duties and responsibilities, be focused and targeted Geoscience. Like, leaders to highlight learning XI on ruling acting political know of deep love of cut dry in practice go in forefront of river new language out poverty XI on coordination advance "four a full" strategy layout discusses excerpts XI on full deepening reform discusses excerpts XI on full law ruling discusses excerpts 18 big yilai XI on major economic problem discusses excerpts, discipline to highlight learning XI on strict party of discipline and rules discusses excerpts XI Jinping, on the construction of clean and honest Government and fight against corruption discussed excerpts, technology to highlight the learning of the XI Jinping on technological innovation and discusses excerpts, XI Jinping, education should highlight the important excerpts of work on education and so on. To address the relation between stage and often science. Phase has the advantage of time to focus on fast, to highlight the theme, focused, result; often learn the advantages of flexible fit, form, subtle, continues to

 guarantee for the great struggle. This aspects XI General Secretary of speech main including exercise thrift, against extravagance mass line is party of lifeline and fundamental work route accurate grasp party of mass line education practice activities of guideline and target requirements set and develop "three strict three real" of style put power shut into system of cage in using history wisdom advance anti-corruption construction in-depth advance style clean government and anti-corruption struggle develop nail nail of spirit, a Zhang good of blueprint worked to... 9. other aspects. 18 big yilai, XI General Secretary also respectively on diplomatic, and military, and ecological construction, aspects published has important speech, covers has construction ecological civilization, and advance defense and army modern, and rich "one country, two systems" practice and advance country unified, and go peace development road, and promoted building new powers relationship, and go good around diplomatic work, and strengthening and developing countries solidarity cooperation, and active participation multilateral affairs, and science of thinking and work method, many aspects. XI Jinping, Secretary of a series of important speeches, and further enrich and develop the party's theory, line, principles and policies, the party puts forward new requirements for more contemporary features, the latest achievement of Marxism in China, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics. Four methods. To address the relationship between comprehensive and focused on science. In the process of learning, we should follow as a good study and carry out the "wise men" to conduct a comprehensive collaborative learning; and with their own jobs, focus research and understanding spirit, grasp the potential requirements. For example, every party member should be according to the various branches of learning program, an article does not go into a link, no leakage of conducting a comprehensive study, and combined with their own duties and responsibilities, be focused and targeted Geoscience. Like, leaders to highlight learning XI on ruling acting political know of deep love of cut dry in practice go in forefront of river new language out poverty XI on coordination advance "four a full" strategy layout discusses excerpts XI on full deepening reform discusses excerpts XI on full law ruling discusses excerpts 18 big yilai XI on major economic problem discusses excerpts, discipline to highlight learning XI on strict party of discipline and rules discusses excerpts XI Jinping, on the construction of clean and honest Government and fight against corruption discussed excerpts, technology to highlight the learning of the XI Jinping on technological innovation and discusses excerpts, XI Jinping, education should highlight the important excerpts of work on education and so on. To address the relation between stage and often science. Phase has the advantage of time to focus on fast, to highlight the theme, focused, result; often learn the advantages of flexible fit, form, subtle, continues to

 deepen. In General, periodic high priority on learning, easy to grasp and practice: recurrent learning factors, long time, prone to "sluggish". Learning programmes are explicitly required to learn education is not an event, but to highlight the normal education, differentiated levels, heart, catch a fine practice, the real party's ideological and political construction in the everyday, often. This requires that we do a good job phase focused learning based on knowledge contests, comments on rewards in the form, pay special attention to recurring studies. To handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. For any unit or individual, objectively speaking, in the process of carrying out the party Constitution Party rules and spirit, there is a problem with strong and weak, which we need to pay attention to the actual learning content, and handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. On one hand, we must always keep a humble attitude, good deal, Continue the hardening. The other hand, always keep the spirit of energetic, pegged to the weak link to find gaps, fill the short Board. Short Board issues should not be underestimated, the saying goes, have short Board, add a short. This tells us, there are weaknesses shortcomings and do not be afraid, fear is a blind eye and not to repair, the result is poor is worse and the weak weaker. United States politics home zhamusi, and Wilson and prevention crime learn experts qiaozhikailin proposed has a famous of broken window theory, that, if a building House has a fan window of glass broken has, and this fan Windows no get timely repair, others on May to broke more of window glass, time a long, these damaged of window on to people caused a disorder, and matter of feel, results in this mass errors think no attention, and no management of atmosphere Xia, some bad culture, and violations behavior on will breeding and spread. Reality life in the is such, clean of wall Shang, suddenly was posted has a Zhang ad, if didn't people management, not out days this wall Shang on will appeared greatly small many of advertising; private take mess built phenomenon is so, began circle a small block to built a small shed put things, if didn't people timely stop, he on dare built a hut live people, time long has didn't people tube, wants to tube Shi on difficult has. Therefore, the solid strong is important, a lot to learn is also important. Third, key, grasp the learning objective of education is to train a qualified party member "two" study and education to its core essence is learning and doing. Learning and doing are mutually reinforcing, if optical can't do, study leave, real learning deficiency, while sweating, wind and water, "one fishing white" became "fake words and not the mules". Learning party rules did not comply with the party Constitution, address the learning series is not used, instead, learn and do, imagine this "learning", how do you meet the eligibility requirements of party members. Therefore, the "two" basic learning, the key is in use, do, line. In particular, is a qualified party members to grasp the following three points. To strengthen "four

 deepen. In General, periodic high priority on learning, easy to grasp and practice: recurrent learning factors, long time, prone to "sluggish". Learning programmes are explicitly required to learn education is not an event, but to highlight the normal education, differentiated levels, heart, catch a fine practice, the real party's ideological and political construction in the everyday, often. This requires that we do a good job phase focused learning based on knowledge contests, comments on rewards in the form, pay special attention to recurring studies. To handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. For any unit or individual, objectively speaking, in the process of carrying out the party Constitution Party rules and spirit, there is a problem with strong and weak, which we need to pay attention to the actual learning content, and handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. On one hand, we must always keep a humble attitude, good deal, Continue the hardening. The other hand, always keep the spirit of energetic, pegged to the weak link to find gaps, fill the short Board. Short Board issues should not be underestimated, the saying goes, have short Board, add a short. This tells us, there are weaknesses shortcomings and do not be afraid, fear is a blind eye and not to repair, the result is poor is worse and the weak weaker. United States politics home zhamusi, and Wilson and prevention crime learn experts qiaozhikailin proposed has a famous of broken window theory, that, if a building House has a fan window of glass broken has, and this fan Windows no get timely repair, others on May to broke more of window glass, time a long, these damaged of window on to people caused a disorder, and matter of feel, results in this mass errors think no attention, and no management of atmosphere Xia, some bad culture, and violations behavior on will breeding and spread. Reality life in the is such, clean of wall Shang, suddenly was posted has a Zhang ad, if didn't people management, not out days this wall Shang on will appeared greatly small many of advertising; private take mess built phenomenon is so, began circle a small block to built a small shed put things, if didn't people timely stop, he on dare built a hut live people, time long has didn't people tube, wants to tube Shi on difficult has. Therefore, the solid strong is important, a lot to learn is also important. Third, key, grasp the learning objective of education is to train a qualified party member "two" study and education to its core essence is learning and doing. Learning and doing are mutually reinforcing, if optical can't do, study leave, real learning deficiency, while sweating, wind and water, "one fishing white" became "fake words and not the mules". Learning party rules did not comply with the party Constitution, address the learning series is not used, instead, learn and do, imagine this "learning", how do you meet the eligibility requirements of party members. Therefore, the "two" basic learning, the key is in use, do, line. In particular, is a qualified party members to grasp the following three points. To strengthen "four

 guarantee for the great struggle. This aspects XI General Secretary of speech main including exercise thrift, against extravagance mass line is party of lifeline and fundamental work route accurate grasp party of mass line education practice activities of guideline and target requirements set and develop "three strict three real" of style put power shut into system of cage in using history wisdom advance anti-corruption construction in-depth advance style clean government and anti-corruption struggle develop nail nail of spirit, a Zhang good of blueprint worked to... 9. other aspects. 18 big yilai, XI General Secretary also respectively on diplomatic, and military, and ecological construction, aspects published has important speech, covers has construction ecological civilization, and advance defense and army modern, and rich "one country, two systems" practice and advance country unified, and go peace development road, and promoted building new powers relationship, and go good around diplomatic work, and strengthening and developing countries solidarity cooperation, and active participation multilateral affairs, and science of thinking and work method, many aspects. XI Jinping, Secretary of a series of important speeches, and further enrich and develop the party's theory, line, principles and policies, the party puts forward new requirements for more contemporary features, the latest achievement of Marxism in China, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics. Four methods. To address the relationship between comprehensive and focused on science. In the process of learning, we should follow as a good study and carry out the "wise men" to conduct a comprehensive collaborative learning; and with their own jobs, focus research and understanding spirit, grasp the potential requirements. For example, every party member should be according to the various branches of learning program, an article does not go into a link, no leakage of conducting a comprehensive study, and combined with their own duties and responsibilities, be focused and targeted Geoscience. Like, leaders to highlight learning XI on ruling acting political know of deep love of cut dry in practice go in forefront of river new language out poverty XI on coordination advance "four a full" strategy layout discusses excerpts XI on full deepening reform discusses excerpts XI on full law ruling discusses excerpts 18 big yilai XI on major economic problem discusses excerpts, discipline to highlight learning XI on strict party of discipline and rules discusses excerpts XI Jinping, on the construction of clean and honest Government and fight against corruption discussed excerpts, technology to highlight the learning of the XI Jinping on technological innovation and discusses excerpts, XI Jinping, education should highlight the important excerpts of work on education and so on. To address the relation between stage and often science. Phase has the advantage of time to focus on fast, to highlight the theme, focused, result; often learn the advantages of flexible fit, form, subtle, continues to

 deepen. In General, periodic high priority on learning, easy to grasp and practice: recurrent learning factors, long time, prone to "sluggish". Learning programmes are explicitly required to learn education is not an event, but to highlight the normal education, differentiated levels, heart, catch a fine practice, the real party's ideological and political construction in the everyday, often. This requires that we do a good job phase focused learning based on knowledge contests, comments on rewards in the form, pay special attention to recurring studies. To handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. For any unit or individual, objectively speaking, in the process of carrying out the party Constitution Party rules and spirit, there is a problem with strong and weak, which we need to pay attention to the actual learning content, and handle the relationship between solid strong to learn and a lot to learn. On one hand, we must always keep a humble attitude, good deal, Continue the hardening. The other hand, always keep the spirit of energetic, pegged to the weak link to find gaps, fill the short Board. Short Board issues should not be underestimated, the saying goes, have short Board, add a short. This tells us, there are weaknesses shortcomings and do not be afraid, fear is a blind eye and not to repair, the result is poor is worse and the weak weaker. United States politics home zhamusi, and Wilson and prevention crime learn experts qiaozhikailin proposed has a famous of broken window theory, that, if a building House has a fan window of glass broken has, and this fan Windows no get timely repair, others on May to broke more of window glass, time a long, these damaged of window on to people caused a disorder, and matter of feel, results in this mass errors think no attention, and no management of atmosphere Xia, some bad culture, and violations behavior on will breeding and spread. Reality life in the is such, clean of wall Shang, suddenly was posted has a Zhang ad, if didn't people management, not out days this wall Shang on will appeared greatly small many of advertising; private take mess built phe

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